Positivism Essay Example

Positivism Paper Positivism is a theoretical and methodological approach in contemporary criminology. Positivists believe that human behavior is shaped by biological, psychological or social factors and forces. These factors and forces are called individual pathology which deter the decision-making and control ability of an individual and results in behavioral problems (White Haines, 2003). To extend to legal definition, crime is defined as individual pathology to obey law and to conform to moral consensus of the society. Positivism approach in criminology examines the trait distinctions between offenders, rather than on the criminal acts as the focus of analysis. Also, positivism determines how these differences predispose a person towards criminality (White Haines, 2003). Positivists believed that these traits observed can be diagnosed and treated by dealing with and removing the factors and forces that cause the offending behavior to occur. Rather than punishment, positivism directs toward the treatment of offender as a response to crime (White Haines, 2003). The study of positivism is to classify and quantify human behaviors to uncover the causal relations between deviants traits and the committed crime. Therefore, positivism is a scientific approach in the criminal justice system. We will write a custom essay sample on Positivism specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Positivism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Positivism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Psychological positivism Positivism concerning with psychological factors induced behavior is called psychological positivism. The consequences and impact of individual trauma are psychological factors which provoke behavior problems (White Haines, 2003). These psychological factors hinder the cognitive development in decision making, social understanding and moral reasoning. Thus, people with psychological problem are potential to commit in crime as they are unconscious in doing so (White Haines, 2003). Based on psychological positivism, criminals are associated with one of these psychological theories: psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive and physiological theory (Senna Siegel, 1990). The following will explain these theories by the case of man rape against woman. (a) Psychoanalytic theory Psychoanalytic theory was developed by Sigmund Freud (Senna Siegel, 1990). He believed that the personality arises from a conflict between three interacting systems: id, ego and superego (Senna Siegel, 1990). Id is unconscious energy that strives to satisfy instant gratification, it operates on the pleasure principle. Superego incorporates the moral norms of the society that how one ought to behave. Ego is conscious part of personality that satisfies the ids desires in ways that realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. It operates on the reality principle and struggles to reconcile the conflict between ego and superego. Psychoanalysts believe that law violators may suffer from personality disorder which is caused by damaged egos or superego (Senna Siegel, 1990). The personality disorder is self control inability which denoted that the capacity to repress urges is diminished. Criminals seek immediate gratification of wishes without consideration of right and wrong or the need s of others in the absence of self control. Humans are impulsive and anti-social in nature, they learn to aside to law through the system of self control. Low self control is consisted of incapability of defer gratification, lack of perseverance, and preference for risky and physical behavior (White Haines, 2003). To relate rape with self control theory, rape is seen as a gratification from sexual provocation. Mens sexual drive is aroused by womens dress, presence or movements. The drive is power and is so overwhelming to control (Vogelman, 1990). Men have no choice but to rape for a surge of excitement. As Groth and Birnbau (1979) argued, rape is not a symptom of mental illness but of personality dysfunction (cited in Hall, 1995: 74). Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) argued that child-rearing is critical to the development of self-control (cited in White Haines, 2003: 47). Family which lack of harmony, emotional warmth, and mutual acceptance promote the development of delinquency. Parents in these families treat the child aggressively or overly strict. Child abuse and neglect are also found in these families (Friedrich, 2003). Through such experiences, children learn aggressive behavior via modeling and perform similar reactions in the future. Warrne, Hazelwood and Reboussin (1991) reported that 76% rapists had experienced some sort of sexual abuse when they were children (cited in Hall, 1995: 75). These abuses include physical penetration or coercion to watch sexual act by assaults who were their family member or known assailants such as teacher, neighbor or friend (Hall, 1995). (b) Behavioral Theory Behavioral theory believes that behavior is determined. It is learned from others or through experiences. Human beings learn from daily observations (Senna Siegel, 1990). For example, youth exposed to aggressive, antisocial behavior on television and movies are likely to copy that violent behavior. Similarly, reading pornography laced with violence causes people to commit to rape. Laboratory researchers have claimed that media exposure on sexual aggression such as violence, degrade and humiliate against women encourage sexual offends (Howitt, 1998). It have been found that the majority of rapists to be of average or above average intelligence, educational level and income. However, they have inability to form or maintain emotionally intimate relationships with others (Hall, 1995). In fact, antisocial behavior can be induced by social disability such as deprivation or discrimination. Also, when people are unable to attain what they desire, they become frustrated and their potential for aggression is increased (Vogelman, 1990). Physical acts are often the quickest way to express anger or stress to diminish the inability and impairments (Conley, Luckasson Bouthilet, 1992). Groth and Hobson (1083) defined rape as a sexual expression of aggression against women (cited in Howitt, 1998: 91). This can be illustrated by anger rape. Anger rape involves physically force than necessary to overpower and damage the victim to obtain sex. Abusive, obscene and degrading languages are accompanied with anger rapist to express their hostility (How itt, 1998). This indicates that rape cannot be understood in terms of sexual desire alone. (c) Cognitive theory Cognitive theory focuses on how people process and store information. A child may do what is right simply to avoid punishment. The same person will do what is right to avoid hurting others in later life. This is called moral reasoning (Senna Siegel, 1990). Moral reasoning determines the perception one acquired. Perception dominates people behavior. Moral reasoning also endeavor one to obey law on behalf of their social responsibility and to identify the perspectives, feelings or thoughts of the others (Murphy Clare, 2003). Based on these theories, criminals are probably to have faulty perception and information processing as they are unable to think logically in the system of axiom. Axiom is the causal relationship of if and then, that is the impact of criminals behavior (Conley, Luckasson Bouthilet, 1992). Senna Siegel (1990) suggested that criminals are significantly lower in their moral judgment than non-criminals as they have limited insight into the motivations and character istics of others. They perceive other people as more aggressive than they are. Undoubtedly, they are more likely to be vigilant and suspicious. When criminals attack victims, they believe they were actually defending themselves (Senna Siegel, 1990). For male rapists, women are percept as sex objects and they believe that women are not worthy of respect since men are more competitive in the sphere of sexual relations. Rapists are unable to identify the equality between the two sex roles. The expression of mens masculinity is demonstrated in power rape. As Groth and Birnbaum (1979) stated, The intent of the power rapist is to assert his competency and validate his masculinity (as cited in Hall, 1995:76). Power rape is driven by fantasy. The power rapist projects his own desires on the victim, thereby interpreting her resistance as a facade of non-compliance. The rapists are exited by pain and suffering of the victim (Murphy Clare, 2003). The dehumanization of women reflects rapists inconsideration on others. The power rapists use language of instructional as to express conquest against women. (d) Physiological theory Physiological theory is the identification of the psychopathic personality (Senna Siegel, 1990). Psychopathic personality is caused by physical abnormality in the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS mediates internal activities such as heart beat and blood pressure when associated with emotions. The physical abnormality can be caused by genetic and biochemical factors. Therefore, psychopathic personality is predisposed innately and is unaffected by socialization. Psychopath experiences lower arousal levels to stimuli and react differently from the normal. Therefore, it is possible that psychopaths are thrill seekers who engage in high-risk, antisocial activities to raise their general neurological level to a more optimal rate (Senna Siegel, 1990). Criminals are potential psychopaths who devoted in risky activities. As Freud developed, libidinal energy is internalized in particular zone of human, these zones are oral, anal, phallic and genital. These zones will evoke a feeling of pleasure when they are stimulated (Vogelman, 1990). Therefore, it is possible for men to have biological drive for sex. Moreover, As Gebbard, Gagnon, Pomeroy and Christenseon (1965) stated, In many mammals, coitus is preceded by a physical strugglethe physiological by-products of excitement and exertion is the increased heart rate, increased breathing, muscle tension, the greater supply of blood to the body surfaces, etc (cited in Vogelman, 1990: 39). Men rape not purely because of lust and lack of sex, but to facilitate sexual arousal. The arousal is obtained from the struggle of woman to produce a sense of excitement (Vogelman, 1990). Treatment As mentioned previously, the response of crime in positivism concentrates on treatment rather than punishment. Offenders who seem to have personality problems will undergo a psychological evaluation examined by forensic psychologists and psychiatrists (Senna Siegel, 1990). These professionals worked within the criminal justice system to assess the possibility of personality disorder. They also assert appropriate treatment to criminals according to their degree of deficiency. Treatment for rapists seeks to identify the causes of their deviant behavior, and to cure them by changing their thinking processing. Treatments for rapists include psychotherapy, behavior modification and biomedical therapy (Hall, 1995). There are three forms of psychotherapy: relapse prevention, cognitive therapy, and victim empathy. Relapse prevention is based on the belief that an event such as emotion and behavior are prior to rape, rapists are asked to identify the preceding events so that whenever the event appear they can consciously terminate their offensive behavior (Hall, 1995). Relapse prevention is the exercise of self control utilization. Cognitive therapy indoctrinates a moral perception to rapists that it is necessary to rationalize and justify their own offensive behavior (Hall, 1995). Victim empathy enables the rapists to empathize with his victims, thereby gaining recognition of the lasting impact of his action. In this therapy, rapist reenacts the rape from the perspective of a victim (Hall, 1995). A new moral reasoning system is constructed from this torture experience. Behavior modification is done by arousal control (Hall, 1995). It makes use of adverse conditions to control unacceptable behavior. For example, a rapist is assigned to be exposed to a scene which depicts a violent sexual encounter. If he is sexually aroused, he might receive a series of electrical shocks or might be subjected to an offensive odor (Hall, 1995). The purpose of the treatment is to cause the rapist to respond adversely to the thoughts of sexual violence. Thus, behavior is reformed. Biomedical therapy involves the use of drugs in conjunction with other forms of therapy. Drugs are used as a form of chemical castration that results in suppression of the manufacture of the sex hormones, testosterone. It may also use to suppress inappropriate fantasies and compulsive behavior (Hall, 1995). Offensive behavior can be removed. Psychological positivism as legal defense mechanism In criminal justice system, a voluntary act, the actus reus and a mental element, the mens reas are required to condemn someone to be guilty (Murphy Clare, 2003). The mental elements include the cognitive development and psychiatric conditions of the offenders. The cognitive development contributes to the ability to identify existing problems and formulate an effective way to solve the problems (Murphy Clare, 2003). If the development is interrupted, the offender is claimed to be no intention for their acts. Likely is the psychiatric illness sufferer. The criminal law recognizes these abnormal mental conditions of a person not to entirely responsible for their actions as intent for the commission of crime is negated (Senna Siegel, 1990). The mental state of unconscious is used as a legal defense mechanism. If a person is declared insane when they were committing crime, a judgment of not guilty by reason of insanity (cited in Senna Siegel, 1990) is entered. The person is then held in an institution for the criminally insane until found to be sane and eligible for release (Senna Siegel, 1990). Offenders can escape from punishment liked incarceration. Besides, involuntarily intoxication under duress or by mistake may also be an excuse to refute the crime committed. Even though voluntary intoxication can lessen the degree of crime because the defendant can prove they were lacking of critical element for mental intention (Senna Siegel, 1990). For example, a judgment may be decreased from first to second-degree murder. The defense mechanism in respect to psychological positivism is being criticized as it spurs crime as it releases criminal offenders. Criminal justice system is thus unjust. Conclusion The willingness of time and money consumption to investigate psychological positivism indicates that policymakers ascertain that personal trait is a contributing cause of criminality. Nevertheless, there are critiques in psychological positivism. Since positivism is a science, it is inaccessible to the general community. Power is centered in the hands of forensic psychologists and psychiatrists with their specialized knowledge (White Haines, 2003). Debate was also found on the efficacy of criminal profiling. Psychological positivism brings suspicious people into innocent criminals simply because they match certain personality traits (White Haines, 2003). In contrast, psychological positivism allows crime to be prevented by early intervention such as pre-school program to enforce discipline to children. Psychological positivism tends to construct a more harmonic society for the future.

Personal Bhag Essay Example

Personal Bhag Essay Example Personal Bhag Essay Personal Bhag Essay My personal BHAG goal is to become a successful businesswoman. Since I was a little girl, I’ve always thought about being a businessman just like my father who is my idol and hero. In my perspective, businessmen are the persons who push the society moving forward although in pursue of profits. Their wisdom, their capacity of organizing and coordinating things, and their insight to the market attract me and make me want to be a businessman. So after high school study, I choose to go to university for further study and major in Business Management. In order to achieve my goal, I have to learn fundamental business management theories and concepts. That’s the first step. Only with these essential theories and concepts, would I get to know how to run a business efficiently and profitably, and what is the best way to solve a practical problem. Besides learning basic business management knowledge, I need to improve my communication capacity as well. I’m poor at interpersonal communication which is one of my weaknesses. Todays leader needs to develop skills that motivate teams to excel. And communication is the basic and normally used skill to inspire and motivate employees. To be a good time-manager is also very important. Time-managing is the ability to arrange things properly and make everything organized. Most college students are bad at time-managing. I’m not good at arranging time as well. So things always happened like this. I hang out and have fun with friends during the daytime and do my homework at midnight. That would always result in bad grades. To be a good time manager is absolutely essential for a leader. A typical day for me should be well organized and efficient. I would get up at 7:00 am and take a quick shower which takes around 20 minutes. Then I’ll take some breakfast at around 7:30 am. A Healthy breakfast is a good start of a day. It can supply energy I need and make me invigorative. According to scientific research, morning time from 8:00am to 11:00am is the best period to study and memorize things. So I’ll take full use of that time to study and recite the knowledge I’ve learned. I’d like to have a break after every an-hour study, relax myself and do some stretches. It’s good my eyes and vertebrae. When it’s about time to take lunch, I’ll go out with my friends and eat healthily. After lunch, I may take a nap which maybe last for an hour. The following 3 hours from 2:00pm to 5:00pm are my flexible time. Maybe I’ll take that time study or maybe hang out with friends, it all depends. After dinner, I’d like to go to the gym to do some exercise to keep fit. From 8:00pm to 9:00pm, it’s a good time to review and prepare for the lectures I’ll have on the next day. Then Go to bed before 10:00pm. That should be a typical weekend arrangement for me. In order to achieving my GHAG, I still have a long way to go. Maybe it’ll take 10 years, 15 years or even more, but I’ll always keep holding on to it and try to do the best I can.

Witchcraft in the 17th Century Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Witchcraft in the 17th Century - Essay Example Many women owned property and operated farms and businesses in competition with their male neighbors. Disputes arose, especially after a husband died and left property to his widow.† (Wilson, 78) This period of history was marked by politico-religious turmoil too. The gender politics that began as a reaction to women’s economic empowerment got mixed with bigotry. Hence, women were now much more likely than men to be accused of witchcraft and tortured that way. The events like the Salem Witch Trials (1692) manifested as an orgy of violence, mainly targeted against women. The policymakers were then frightened to witness the mass hysteria associated with the power of the Puritans. Hence, banning this practice became a legislative imperative. Hence an effort to make the politico-legal system of America more even-handed towards women began which continued even during the 19th century as has been pointed out by Gretchen. As shown in the film ‘The Crucible’, in rel ation to the Salem Witch Trials, Nilan has pointed out, â€Å"Nineteen villagers were hung as witches, four died in prison and one was pressed to death.† This sort of superstitious terror inevitably led to policy reforms and prohibition. 2. Which one of the following do you think were the main two winners and which were the main two losers in England’s Glorious Revolution of 1689, and how and why did the Revolution lead to an expansion of the British Parliament’s policy of Salutary Neglect toward its American possessions? Parties involved: British Monarchy, British Parliament, Church of England, Protestant Dissenters, and Catholics. Answer: The Glorious Revolution of 1689 in England was an event of tremendous importance in the history of not only Europe but also America. The revolution although strengthened the Parliament and democracy, it also encouraged discrimination against Catholics. The main winners: 1. British Parliament: By inviting the William of Orange to invade England, the British Parliament ensured the partnership of the superior Dutch naval fleet. After deposing King James II, the Parliament now did not give much power to the new monarch William III (the William of Orange). Instead, it began to increase its power more and more as it levied maritime advantage by the merger of English and Dutch fleets. 2. Protestant Dissenters: Members from both the Tories and the Whigs united under the common umbrella of Protestant reaction against a possible Catholic Monarchy, and they ultimately established a parliamentary system that strongly favored the Protestants. In this way, Protestants prevailed. The main losers: 1. British Monarchy: Since King James II was deposed, not only the possibility of a Catholic dynasty was destroyed but also the very institution of the Monarchy itself began to decline rapidly under the pressure of the British Parliament. 2. Catholics: Protestants were the majority in the British Parliament after the events o f 1689. They eradicated the Catholics from the political system. Thousands of Catholics lost power and property in the subsequent decades.

Case Study 9&10 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Case Study 9 - Essay Example In fact, â€Å"cultural sensitivity, cultural intelligence, and certain specific global leadership skills are essential for inspiring people from cultures other than ones own† (DuBrin, 2013, p. 451). In the given example, the way Calvin interpreted the remark given by his team-leader in Great Britain demonstrates the low level of his cultural sensitivity. Actually, he tried to find the reason of low sales in lack of cooperation within his international team not in his managerial skills. Hence, the most important issue is that he tries to fix international challenges in American way. In order to provide the solution, above all it is necessary to mention that commitment is an essential part of each team. Therefore, each member of the company should easily recognize the general aim in order to stay motivated at the workplace. In a given example, the very idea of creating disaster insurance is referring to the universal value of security. Nevertheless, the company did not appropriately notice the difference in specific causes of insecurity. For instance, USA suffers from hurricanes, Japan is facing constant earthquakes, and Great Britain is not that preoccupied with natural but artificial anomalies. Consequently, the final product must be different for these countries to increase commitment of the international team. The advantages of this approach are evident in world experience. In this context, McDonalds company is the best example of effective management in international teams. It gives enough freedom to the local representatives to sale the goods in favor to local tastes. However, the potential disadvantage is that team can become so independent that it will not need American managers to be successful on the local market. In other words, it can be too late to change the interpersonal relations within the company. Thus, there are several methods to increase the effectiveness of the international

Gender communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Gender communication - Essay Example (Payne, 2001) Thus drawing for a communication difference scenario between men and women, one comes to an understanding that the two communicate in quite varied ways. This is because it is an inherent feature of their make-up, the composition in which they have been made. While men tend to be open and blunt about their thoughts, actions and perceptions, women, on the other hand are more inclined to take it the soft way. This is because they perceive things pretty easily as compared to men who usually are hard and stubborn in their undertakings. Because of this men are known to be violent even within their communicative regimes while women are more sedate and sober when it comes to conversation and the like, all under the heading of communication. (Cody, 1995) Furthermore, men are known to be dominant over their clan while women are known to be subversive within their own rights – yet raising no qualms about their dealings and the ways in which they go about conducting themselves. It is a known fact that within the communicative aspects, men are open to defend their own selves in the wake of differing reactions, afterthoughts and attitudes while women, for the large part, remain confident of their own disposition by remaining quiet and diffident. This is not because they are afraid of coming out clean and clear as per the issue at hand but because they like to remain light on every aspect on which their attention is hailed as supreme right from the onset. It is difficult to make out what women usually would come up with in the case of extreme circumstances. They are easier to cry and weep while it is a well known fact that men usually do not cry unless special circumstances prevail upon their nature. The role of assertion within men is generally more as compared to women. Men feel more asserted as per their points of

Growing Up :: essays papers

Growing Up Short story authors use symbolism to describe particular scenes without actually saying the words, which adds to the interest of the story. In Frank O'Connor's story "First Confession" and John Steinbeck's story "The Chrysanthemums", both authors use symbolism to enhance the readers insight of the story. Also, the symbolism offered by the authors provides the reader with a deeper look into the story, making the reader find more interest throughout. In "The Chrysanthemums", Steinbeck uses a betrayal issue as the basis of the story, where O'Connor's "First Confession" uses a religious basis. Even though there is a wide spread in the subjects, a link is created. Wisdom, spirituality, and frustration are all symbols shared by these unrelated topics. "The Chrysanthemums" main character is Elisa Allen. Elisa is married and loves to work in her garden. While working in the garden, a stranger pulls his wagon into Elisa's yard. The stranger manages to con Elisa by speaking of her flowers, which is Elisa's ultimate soft spot. Elisa gives the man some of her prize Chrysanthemums to give to another woman that he knew. While going to dinner with her husband, she notices her beautiful flowers have been carelessly discarded onto the road. This is one of Steinbeck's main symbols. The discarded flowers symbolize Elisa's beauty and femininity. Because Elisa has no children, she believes that her flowers are her children. She takes care of them better than anything she has in her possession does. When the smooth talking stranger disposes of her flowers, he has taken her children away from her. Elisa is also portrayed as venerable. The stranger takes advantage of this venerability by acting like he liked the flowers and was going to deliver t hem to a lady. The Chrysanthemums were Elisa's life and even her entire being on her isolated farm .Not only her trust was broken, but her faith in people and even herself was broken. She put her faith in the stranger and was betrayed. Elisa's garden was consistent with the Garden of Eden. Her flowers were cast out onto the road as God cast out Adam and Eve. Adam and Eve betrayed God, like the stranger betrayed Elisa's trust in him. In Frank O'Connor's "First Confession", a little seven year old boy named Jackie has been scared by a nun's portrayal of confession. Frightened by this inaccurate encounter, Jackie is nervous about making his first confession.

Marrying for Money

â€Å"I’m a little shocked at t he numbers,† says Pamela Smock, a sociologist at the University of Michigan who has studied marriage and money. â€Å"It’s kind of against the notion of love and soul mates and the main motivations to marry in our culture.† (Frank, 2007). These shocking words that came out from a sociologist only suggests that in modern times, money should still be not the reason for marrying. It is a fact however that money is a big driving force for someone who wants to get married. At the back of their minds, there is the constant reminder of reality like divorce or annulment. However, they should also consider why they got into the relationship in the first place. Relationships are not built based on money. Moreover, one does not dwell into a relationship with the primary concern of money; whereas; it should have been the connection and the love that the partners share. Getting married is not like a hot potato that you can eat and spit out the moment that you discovered that it is too for you to handle. Marriage is a lifetime relationship and commitment; and this very same basis should be built on love, trust and respect. Ultimately, it should not be money because it devoid the vow that they made in front of the authority (may it be religiously or lawfully speaking). No matter how money plays a very important role in our society today, marriage should still be based on the wanting of both people to stay together for the rest of their lives. Additionally, since most of people these days are very agitated into climbing their way into the corporate world. People who want to settle down are the ones that have already made a niche in their fields. This only implies that they have everything they want or could ever want so the concept of money is the least on their priority. In addition, there are such things as pre-nuptial agreements which protect the assets of both parties. And people who sign to such agreements only want to protect their hard-earned money; so it is wrong to say that people want to marry for money. People who want to make money out of marriage are the ones who see it (marriage) as business or a way to get what they want. People who have mindsets like that are very superficial. Their concept of marriage very different from what it really is. Instead, they put a price tag to marriages. However, there are cases wherein people settle down more than once but it is enough to say that they married for money. Take for example Elizabeth Taylor who married five different guys. She is rich on her own that is why she married those guys because she wants to be committed with them for eternity. This only implies that once again, people who want to get married should want to do it because they want to spend the rest of their lives with that special someone. Since most people who want to get married are successful in their chosen field, that is the time that they want someone to spend their life with. Even though the person is really doing well, they cannot be considered truly successful unless they want to achieve real happiness. And marriage, in its purest form, is the only way to achieve that goal. Alongside the desire that you want to share your life with that special someone, the ultimate goal why someone should get married is the happiness that marriage can bring into your life. Marriage is about raising a family and that can give you an ultimate high that not even any achievement can bring. Money is a measure of how successful you are but a happy marriage is also another. Money come and go but family will not. Marrying because of money is a very superficial reason. Marriage is about a commitment of two people to become one which have the same mindset of achieving a happier state in life.   Marriage should be built on trust; respect and love because those really are the basic foundation of a successful future family which ultimately is one of the measurements of how successful you have become. References: Frank, R. (2007). Marrying for Love†¦of money [Electronic Version]. The Wall Street Journal.Retrieved January 16, 2008   from http://online.wsj.com/article/SB119760031991928727.html.