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Transfer of Entrepreneurial succession in family business - Free Essay Example

The main objective of this research proposal is to analyse how the entrepreneurial activity of family businesses continue over generations. The transfer of vision, reason and the extent to which it converts into entrepreneurship across different generations of the family business area will be critically analysed. Research Questions Rationale Many articles have identified few issues that come up when a business is given from the owner to its next generation. This research proposal will examine the background of developing family research and project found research about succession. The continuation of innovation and entrepreneurial behaviour from one generation to the next has been interpreted as entrepreneurial succession. It is necessary to perform further research about the management and strategic planning process of entrepreneurial succession. Fletcher observed that there is an underdeveloped important research area about the overlap and bond of entrepreneurship in family businesses. It can be demonstrated by a founder transferring his/her goal to the next generation through the process of succession, keeping in mind the successors primary vision for the betterment of the business. Hoy and Verser stressed to perform further research on members of the family receiving the vision of the founder. As outlined ear lier, despite having literature about succession issues available, the integration between entrepreneurship and family business literature is lacking. Family operations are known to be unique and feature succession processes. According to the studies of Davis, there is a certain positive moving force family businesses possess towards entrepreneurial activities. However, stability of the enterprise and perpetuity could possibly result in expansion and development of new economic sustained investment goals. With further research, discussions and analysis, family business will be strengthened. Questions This research gives a clear understanding of the relationship between generational entrepreneurship and the link with family businesses. It shall be expressed on theoretically as well as empirically. The primary reason to observe family businesses is because majority of businesses these days are owned by families. The following questions have come across due to the obvious breach in family business literature. What guarantee does a family business have that entrepreneurial activity shall continue over generations? Are the current leaders threatened about the upcoming generations being more entrepreneurial? Is there a possibility to learn from the positive experiences demonstrated in family businesses through their succession process? The above questions are all linked towards the succession inquiry of family business.it focuses on the importance, purpose and the vision of entrepreneurship. The last question focuses on how an individual can learn about the process of suc cession, problems involved, issues concerned in family businesses. It hardly emphasises on appreciating the family business positive aspects. Literature Review The accustomed influences of ambitious businesses absorb the action of an individual or a family that accept an ambition and usually acquire agnate values. For a family business, the literature demonstrates that values ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¹ÃƒÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¹are fundamentally agnate and may be less of an obstacle to the construction of a team of people with altered ideals. However, the access of the founder may actuate how much they are willing to permit outsiders to participate in the business, while Cowling and Westhead (1998) argue that there could be a delay in family businesses if the administration of the family is reluctant to raise  alien funds due to the fear of losing family control. Although there are abounding positives in accepting the business of your family, there is an affirmation of threats to the model. Lansberg (1999) expresses an accepted affair to be dreams not actuality coinciding amid spouses, ancestors and added members of the family. This can advance to acute animosity that can balloon to the apparent and present as resentment, argument and abysmal regrets. The statistics of ownership for the intergenerational family businesses also possess threats. According to Smyrnios Dana (2007), 3/4th of businesses investigated are usually family businesses with the greater part being the first generation, further on halving to the second and third generation. This demonstrates that there is a reduction in family intergenerational involvement. This pathetic agenda is of great concern to family businesses, and in aspect black accustomed that the capital blackmail to the business may be the ancestors members. Davis can be accustomed as the first to bring forward the succession of entrepreneurship. He considers the entrepreneur as an important being who not alone can innovate and handle risks, but observes that the anew formed alignment is successfully functioning where the administration action can be given to others.it is without further doubt, He honed in the family business to research the arising issues of business succession when he saw the family as the most stabilized yet standard unit of social alignment in traditional society. It is this aggregate of family business, succession and entrepreneurship that lead us to the connection of this study. One of the abounding problems of a business is to recreate their advantage over competitors to overcome delay or disappearance. The entrepreneurship relationship with family business turns out to be amusing when observed in the ambience of a succession process. Keeping the ambitious spirit beyond generations is a main concern. The vision and entrepreneurship turn out to be alike based on the artistic and innovative aspects of each.as observed by Schwass, the preparation of the next-generation leaders have to be adjusted as a way of thinking and a goal that is implemented over a period of time.  The reason being familie s increase quickly, boosting up the number of owners and stakeholders and altering market conditions need continuous adjustment and renewal. The vision of the business should be developed, implemented and completely altered by generations that have been/are successive to bring about growth and provide the business with the sense of ownership. The future leaders should be viewed as powerful individuals and recognized as entrepreneurs for the betterment of the family business growth. Schwass divided the family business into three categories. The family business that is transitory would be the first. This category of family business fades off early in the second generation. A Mere example of this type of family business is a business that does not have the ephemeral from a single business to a collective family business. Basically a business that does not have a proper value based vision. The next category of family business would be the type of business that goes on for generations over generations but has to go through delay or no growth. This is known as preserving or maintaining family business. Usually these types of business occur in farms. The category that is the most appropriate to this proposal research would be the entrepreneurial business. Unlike the above ancestors businesses, the ambitious family business has added complication due to a substantive view that family associates gain certain benefits by preserving the business together. This type of family business is a solution to the type of people who consider there is no future for their type of family business. Entrepreneurship abstract focuses on the start-up of the business and tends to avoid the hypothesis that the administrator accordingly goes through retirement and needs to give the business to a successor. It is necessary in the abstract review for an understanding of circuitous and activating attributes of an entrepreneurial succession in family business. It is also necessary to underst and the family changes, founder changes, and company changes over time. Methodology This section can be subdivided into three sections, philosophical, methodical, and the research contribution. The first part I am going to analyse would be the philosophical. This research will be philosophically interpretive. There has been an access in the social sciences for qualitative analysis but under the research of entrepreneurship it has been represented below the mark according to Hindle. A qualitative access is applicable to entrepreneurship as well as family businesses at a level of methodology. Family business analysis can also be related to this. There is a necessity to utilize qualitative methods to a greater extent in the analysis of entrepreneurship. MacMillan (1988) performed a review which exhibited that in the analysis of entrepreneurship, the qualitative methods were lacking. The apathetic advance in analysis has been pretty disappointing as it addresses problems of casualty to entrepreneurship. The challenges in the future and the research of the model use d in the analysis of entrepreneurship will be methodology which serves to be explanatory, driven theoretically, and multiple methods utilization. Usually in the history of methodology analysis, surveys, interviews, descriptive, case studies, etc. were recommended. The perspectives of interpretation are highlighted through qualitative analysis as the knowledge to borrow from various disciplines. A qualitative researcher is given many added analogies; they are referred to as filmmakers, manufacturer of blankets or an individual who gathers images into a collage. On the other hand, Quantitative research dont have a subjective approach, they tend to have more of an objective approach. It carries the view of figures, reality and measurements in a positive manner.it can also be said that few of the objectivity have a possibility to be presumed when analysed qualitatively, although there is a tendency to be more indulged by the researcher on the subject, resulting into the objectivit y lacking.an inquiry that is interpretive in nature is required for a sustainable process like succession in entrepreneurship. It exposes a certain depth.as mentioned earlier, the need to borrow from various disciplines needs to be revealed as it is overlapping and intersecting.eg. Business run by family overlapping and intersecting entrepreneurship, family businesses clashing with succession issues, and most of all entrepreneurship and succession. The analysis in which the research will be conducted is an important part to be considered. As stated above, clearly there is evidence of problems, issues, difficulties, conflicts, etc. in businesses run by families from the literature and also suggested through the tradition that is being analysed, rather than investigations into what is performing well. This in return has resulted into the inquiry which is appreciative in nature. This is a good type of inquiry to choose because it evaluates the firm in a future minded way. According to Whitney Stavros, It is assumed that each firm has its strengths  and sections that function well, and that through this type of research, positivity can be created in the firm. Further on, discussions shall be held regarding the strategies that are utilized in the inquiry. Interviews are considered as a crucial source to abstract information of such sort. There are two types of tasks that are a must to carry out in the process of an interview according to Yin.The first type would be to chase a band of inquiry, which would be an inquiry that is appreciative. The second type would be to ask real questions in an  impartial manner which is necessary for the research. The interview questions be open and encourage debate unsolicited.one of the advantages of collection of data through the utilization of interviews is that it concentrates mainly on the topic concerned and is insightful. However, the disadvantage of using interviews as a mode of data collection is that i f the questions concerned are not well framed, there is a possibility of it being inaccurate due to inadequate specification or artlessly the interviewer apprehends exactly what the interviewee says. Alongside, Historical data shall additionally be collected by the process, especially to award out the business and its founder history. Potential successors or founders are the main people the interviews are proposed towards. It serves as the studies main contribution. The contributions that tend to be practical include comprehending the system of a family business that is entrepreneurial in nature. Detailed research and recommendations performed explaining the succession overlap, entrepreneurship and family businesses. Also it provides a body of framework for the family business. Ethical issues Interviews are very useful for the process of collecting data despite there being a disadvantage when it comes to the inaccuracy and researchers prejudice due to poor retrieval. Interv iews have a similar way of consent just like the focus groups, but there is an altered dynamic when the process if facilitated.it will be a formal consent which shall be performed through an agreement that is written in form. This written consent agreement shall identify the extent and limitations to interview these people. Audio as well as video recording shall be performed of the participants, which consent shall be taken. The family business analysis shall be divided into four categories. The first would be the consent that is informative. This type of consent involves the voluntary participants agreeing to have the information completely open and in full. The second consent would be the way information is extracted from the participants; under no circumstance should it be gathered by means of deception or any sort of misrepresentation. The third category would be the respect for confidential matters and the uphold of privacy. Although there is a slight hitch to this; Privacy pro tection would be pointless if there is no accordance on what is private and what is accessible. The last category would be the necessity to have a certain assurance that the information being provided is accurate and has not been omitted, fabricated, or any of the materials are fraud. These four categories are applicable to data collection and observation techniques as well. A good example would be observation performed on the site with no script, it results in information being interpretive and it solely relies on information being gathered through regular note taking. In such a situation, accuracy can be a drawback as there is no immediate note of real time circumstances. Referencing Astrachan, J. H., Shanker, M. C. (2003). Family businesses contribution to the U.S. economy: A closer look. Family Business Review, 16(3), 211. Brockhaus, R. H. (1994). Entrepreneurship and family business research: Comparisons, critique, and lessons. Entrepreneurship: Theory Practice, 19(1), 14. Christians, C. G. (2005). Ethics and politics in qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 131-164). Thousand Oaks: Sage. Cohen, L., Manion, L., Morrison, K. (2001). Research methods in education (5th ed.). New York: RoutledgeFalmer. Collingwood, R. G. (1976). Essays in the philosophy of essays. Austin: University of Texas Press. Cooperrider, D. L., Whitney, D., Stavros, J. M. (2003). Appreciative Inquiry Handbook: The first in a series of AI workbooks for leaders of change. Bedford Heights: Lakeshore Publishers. Davis, S. M. (1968). Entrepreneurial succession. Administrati ve Science Quarterly, 13(3),15. Denzin, N. K., Lincoln, Y. S. (2005a). Introduction. In N. K. Denzin Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.),The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 1-32). Thousand Oaks: Sage. Denzin, N. K., Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2005b). The Sage handbook of qualitative research(3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage. Dyer, W. G., Wilkins, A. L. (1991). Better stories, not better constructs, to generate better theory: A rejoiner to Eisenhardt. Academy of Management Review, p. 613, Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 532-550. Eisenhardt, K. M. (1991). Better stories and better constructs: The case for rigor and comparative logic. Academy of Management Review, 16(3), 620. Fletcher, D. (2004). Organisational (re)emergance and entrepreneurial development in a second-generation family firm. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour Research, 10(1/2), 34-48. Handler, W. C. (1994). Succession in Family Business: A Review of the Research Family Business Review, 7(2), 25. Hindle, K. (2004). Choosing qualitative methods for entrepreneurial cognition research: A canonical development approach. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 28(6), 575- 607. Hoy, F., Verser, T. G. (1994). Emerging business, emerging field: entrepreneurship and the family firm. Entrepreneurship: Theory Practice, 19(1), 15. Kamberelis, G., Dimitriadis, G. (2005). The Sage handbook of qualitative research. In N.K. Denzin Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), (3rd ed., pp. 887-907). Thousand Oaks: Sage. Kets de Vries, M. F. R. (1993). The dynamics of family controlled firms: The good and the bad news. Organizational Dynamics, 21(3), 59-71. Lansberg, I. (1999). Succeeding Generations: Realizing the dream of families in business.Boston: Harvard. Low, M. B., MacMillan, I. C. (1988). Entrepreneurship: Past research and future challenges. Journal of Management, 14(2), 139- 161. Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Miles, M., Huberman, A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Richardson, L. (1998). Writing: A method of inquiry. In N. Denzin Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials (pp. 354-371). Thousand Oaks:Sage. Schwass, J. (2005). Wise growth strategies in leading family businesses. Hampshire: Palgrave MacMillan. Stake, R. (1995). Art of case study research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. Weick, K. (1995a). Sensemaking in organisations. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Weick, K. (1995b). What theory is not, theorizing is. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40(3), 385-390. Westhead, P., Cowling, M. (1998). Family firm research: The need for a methodological rethink. Entrepreneurship: Theory Practice, 23(1), 31-56. Woodfield, P. J. (2008, 8 February). Intergenerational entrepreneurship in family b usiness. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

The Average Age Of Mothers - 3634 Words

Scenario The designed database is used to record the births of all premature babies in a Hospital. Created database consists of four tables which are also referred as the dimensions of the database, and these tables are Patient, Duration, Doctor and Baby. Each dimension will consist of at least 5 attributes. With the use of this database Doctors are able to keep track of individual babies’ records and analyse different patterns such as how long a premature baby does needs medical attention and in average how many babies are admitted to this ward annually. ________________________________________ Objectives †¢ To list the average time scale baby would be in the hospital †¢ To list the average gender of babies recovers quickly †¢ To list the†¦show more content†¦SQL Queries Patient Table The SQL code is written to present all patients surnames within the database, and the above screenshot shows the SQL code and the results from the query. Baby Table The SQL code is written to provide all babies names along with their surname, and the above screenshot shows the SQL code and the results from the query. Doctor Table The SQL code is written to provide all Doctors names within the database along with their surname, I’ve customised this code so the names are sorted in alphabetical order and the above screenshot shows the SQL code and the results from the query. Duration Table This is simple SQL query which is used to present records from a specific table. The above screenshot shows the SQL code and the results from Duration table. Average number of survival As part of my objectives I needed find an average of number of babies whom survived from the records of the database, order to that I used the average function on SQL to run a query showing how many babies have survived from the 10 records. Number of babies survived I also stated in my objective that I would use COUNT function on my database therefore I used the table containing babies’ records to write SQL function that will run and count how many babies have survived from the 10 records. Multi Dimension Array Array 1 Array 2 Task 2 Mining association rules

Mental Illness / Disorders ( Ocd ) And Post Traumatic...

MENTAL ILLNESS/DISORDERS A mental illness or disorder is a medical condition that can alter a person’s emotions, thoughts, mood, and actions, sometimes causing the person difficulty relating to others and daily functioning. (â€Å"Mental Health Conditions.†) It is a condition that keeps the person from coping with their everyday lives if it is not addressed and properly treated. Mental illness is a sickness of the mind that may involve a mental breakdown so serious that the patient must have special care or in some cases be admitted to a mental hospital. Mentally ill people are sick, just as people suffering from sore throats or heart disease are sick. Mental illnesses include depression, bipolar disease, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Many soldiers returning from tours of duty in Vietnam, the Middle East or other war zones suffer from PTSD. One example from One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest is one of Chief Bromden’s outbursts in Pa rt IV, â€Å"AIR RAID! Hit at a lope, running already down the slope. Can’t get back, can’t go ahead, look down the barrel an’ you dead dead dead.† (Kesey, 241) People suffering from PTSD have experienced or witnessed a traumatic or terrifying event, such as war, a mugging, rape, a car wreck or a natural disaster. Most people with PTSD have nightmares or flashbacks in which they relive the experience that caused the illness. This disorder, like many others, can be successfully treated with the rightShow MoreRelatedDissociative Identity Disorder And Social Anxiety1372 Words   |  6 PagesPeople have had mental illnesses since the beginning of time. In this generation, the right look and the right actions are what everyone is looking for. Perfection is the aim, to  ¨fit in. ¨ Though, when we see someone with a mental or physical illness, we automatically jump to the conclusion that those people are different and we can’t be seen with them for the sake of a simple reputation. People know that others who suffer from these illnesses are different, yet they don’t question what is happeningRead MoreWhat Is Psychiatrist?1204 Words   |  5 Pagesthem deal with a mental illness they do not have. The most common mental health issues psychiatrist misdiagnose are Bipolar Disorder, ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), and PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder). Bipolar disorder is a disorder associated with episodes of mood swings ranging from depressive lows to manic highs. Over three million people are diagnosed in the United States every year. 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It can make it difficult for people to cope with everyday life and it can interfere with sleep and eating habits. Mental illness can affect anyone whether it ranges from mood disorders or even anxiety. The cause of mental illness is unknown but chemical imbalances in the body can trigger stress and even trauma, it canRead MoreWhat Is The Mental Health? Essay1628 Words   |  7 PagesWhat is the mental health? Mental health embraces emotional, psychological, and social well-being. It has an effect on thinking, feeling, and acting. It also helps to define how people handle stress and make choices. Mental health is momentous through the stages of life, from childhood and adolescence via adulthood. In the life, if someone experience mental health problems, it has an effect on thinking, behaviour, and mood. 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Anxiety can be broken down into six diffe rent branches: generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, phobia, post-traumatic stress disorder, and social anxiety disorder. People with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) often have increased anxiety over something that shouldn’t create worry. Such as thinking about having to get through the day. This is a cycle that they don’t knowRead More Person Centered Therapy and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder 1203 Words   |  5 Pagesthat because the theory lacks structure, it is not as effective in treating illness. However, it is one of the main theories utilized by therapists today. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is another popular theory that is used. It emphasizes the present and fixing cognitive distortions that clients may have. However, it too received some arguments against it, such as; treating symptoms and not the underlying cause of an illness. 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Traits and Attraction free essay sample

Examines the traits of Bathsheba in Thomas Hardys novel Far from the Madding Crowd and relates these with her relationships with the three men in her life. This paper analyzes Thomas Hardys character Bathsheba Everdene from the novel Far from the Madding Crowd. It focuses on her personality traits and how these traits attracted her to each of the three men in her life. It also analyzes these three men to a lesser degree, but only in relation to her. From the paper: In the Thomas Hardy novel Far from the Madding Crowd, the most interesting aspect of the book is most assuredly the interaction between Bathsheba Everdene and her three admirers. The plot was centered around those relationships, and there would not have been much of a storyline had those encounters been removed. It is therefore desirable to know as much as possible about what made these suitors attractive to Bathsheba, as it would provide great insight into her character as well as lead to a more complete understanding of the book. We will write a custom essay sample on Traits and Attraction or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page With a little analysis, it can be seen that the personality traits in Bathsheba that led to her attraction to Sergeant Troy, Farmer Boldwood, and Gabriel Oak, respectively, are her most primary and basic tendencies, and add much to her complexity.

Positivism Essay Example

Positivism Paper Positivism is a theoretical and methodological approach in contemporary criminology. Positivists believe that human behavior is shaped by biological, psychological or social factors and forces. These factors and forces are called individual pathology which deter the decision-making and control ability of an individual and results in behavioral problems (White Haines, 2003). To extend to legal definition, crime is defined as individual pathology to obey law and to conform to moral consensus of the society. Positivism approach in criminology examines the trait distinctions between offenders, rather than on the criminal acts as the focus of analysis. Also, positivism determines how these differences predispose a person towards criminality (White Haines, 2003). Positivists believed that these traits observed can be diagnosed and treated by dealing with and removing the factors and forces that cause the offending behavior to occur. Rather than punishment, positivism directs toward the treatment of offender as a response to crime (White Haines, 2003). The study of positivism is to classify and quantify human behaviors to uncover the causal relations between deviants traits and the committed crime. Therefore, positivism is a scientific approach in the criminal justice system. We will write a custom essay sample on Positivism specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Positivism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Positivism specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Psychological positivism Positivism concerning with psychological factors induced behavior is called psychological positivism. The consequences and impact of individual trauma are psychological factors which provoke behavior problems (White Haines, 2003). These psychological factors hinder the cognitive development in decision making, social understanding and moral reasoning. Thus, people with psychological problem are potential to commit in crime as they are unconscious in doing so (White Haines, 2003). Based on psychological positivism, criminals are associated with one of these psychological theories: psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive and physiological theory (Senna Siegel, 1990). The following will explain these theories by the case of man rape against woman. (a) Psychoanalytic theory Psychoanalytic theory was developed by Sigmund Freud (Senna Siegel, 1990). He believed that the personality arises from a conflict between three interacting systems: id, ego and superego (Senna Siegel, 1990). Id is unconscious energy that strives to satisfy instant gratification, it operates on the pleasure principle. Superego incorporates the moral norms of the society that how one ought to behave. Ego is conscious part of personality that satisfies the ids desires in ways that realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. It operates on the reality principle and struggles to reconcile the conflict between ego and superego. Psychoanalysts believe that law violators may suffer from personality disorder which is caused by damaged egos or superego (Senna Siegel, 1990). The personality disorder is self control inability which denoted that the capacity to repress urges is diminished. Criminals seek immediate gratification of wishes without consideration of right and wrong or the need s of others in the absence of self control. Humans are impulsive and anti-social in nature, they learn to aside to law through the system of self control. Low self control is consisted of incapability of defer gratification, lack of perseverance, and preference for risky and physical behavior (White Haines, 2003). To relate rape with self control theory, rape is seen as a gratification from sexual provocation. Mens sexual drive is aroused by womens dress, presence or movements. The drive is power and is so overwhelming to control (Vogelman, 1990). Men have no choice but to rape for a surge of excitement. As Groth and Birnbau (1979) argued, rape is not a symptom of mental illness but of personality dysfunction (cited in Hall, 1995: 74). Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) argued that child-rearing is critical to the development of self-control (cited in White Haines, 2003: 47). Family which lack of harmony, emotional warmth, and mutual acceptance promote the development of delinquency. Parents in these families treat the child aggressively or overly strict. Child abuse and neglect are also found in these families (Friedrich, 2003). Through such experiences, children learn aggressive behavior via modeling and perform similar reactions in the future. Warrne, Hazelwood and Reboussin (1991) reported that 76% rapists had experienced some sort of sexual abuse when they were children (cited in Hall, 1995: 75). These abuses include physical penetration or coercion to watch sexual act by assaults who were their family member or known assailants such as teacher, neighbor or friend (Hall, 1995). (b) Behavioral Theory Behavioral theory believes that behavior is determined. It is learned from others or through experiences. Human beings learn from daily observations (Senna Siegel, 1990). For example, youth exposed to aggressive, antisocial behavior on television and movies are likely to copy that violent behavior. Similarly, reading pornography laced with violence causes people to commit to rape. Laboratory researchers have claimed that media exposure on sexual aggression such as violence, degrade and humiliate against women encourage sexual offends (Howitt, 1998). It have been found that the majority of rapists to be of average or above average intelligence, educational level and income. However, they have inability to form or maintain emotionally intimate relationships with others (Hall, 1995). In fact, antisocial behavior can be induced by social disability such as deprivation or discrimination. Also, when people are unable to attain what they desire, they become frustrated and their potential for aggression is increased (Vogelman, 1990). Physical acts are often the quickest way to express anger or stress to diminish the inability and impairments (Conley, Luckasson Bouthilet, 1992). Groth and Hobson (1083) defined rape as a sexual expression of aggression against women (cited in Howitt, 1998: 91). This can be illustrated by anger rape. Anger rape involves physically force than necessary to overpower and damage the victim to obtain sex. Abusive, obscene and degrading languages are accompanied with anger rapist to express their hostility (How itt, 1998). This indicates that rape cannot be understood in terms of sexual desire alone. (c) Cognitive theory Cognitive theory focuses on how people process and store information. A child may do what is right simply to avoid punishment. The same person will do what is right to avoid hurting others in later life. This is called moral reasoning (Senna Siegel, 1990). Moral reasoning determines the perception one acquired. Perception dominates people behavior. Moral reasoning also endeavor one to obey law on behalf of their social responsibility and to identify the perspectives, feelings or thoughts of the others (Murphy Clare, 2003). Based on these theories, criminals are probably to have faulty perception and information processing as they are unable to think logically in the system of axiom. Axiom is the causal relationship of if and then, that is the impact of criminals behavior (Conley, Luckasson Bouthilet, 1992). Senna Siegel (1990) suggested that criminals are significantly lower in their moral judgment than non-criminals as they have limited insight into the motivations and character istics of others. They perceive other people as more aggressive than they are. Undoubtedly, they are more likely to be vigilant and suspicious. When criminals attack victims, they believe they were actually defending themselves (Senna Siegel, 1990). For male rapists, women are percept as sex objects and they believe that women are not worthy of respect since men are more competitive in the sphere of sexual relations. Rapists are unable to identify the equality between the two sex roles. The expression of mens masculinity is demonstrated in power rape. As Groth and Birnbaum (1979) stated, The intent of the power rapist is to assert his competency and validate his masculinity (as cited in Hall, 1995:76). Power rape is driven by fantasy. The power rapist projects his own desires on the victim, thereby interpreting her resistance as a facade of non-compliance. The rapists are exited by pain and suffering of the victim (Murphy Clare, 2003). The dehumanization of women reflects rapists inconsideration on others. The power rapists use language of instructional as to express conquest against women. (d) Physiological theory Physiological theory is the identification of the psychopathic personality (Senna Siegel, 1990). Psychopathic personality is caused by physical abnormality in the autonomic nervous system (ANS). The ANS mediates internal activities such as heart beat and blood pressure when associated with emotions. The physical abnormality can be caused by genetic and biochemical factors. Therefore, psychopathic personality is predisposed innately and is unaffected by socialization. Psychopath experiences lower arousal levels to stimuli and react differently from the normal. Therefore, it is possible that psychopaths are thrill seekers who engage in high-risk, antisocial activities to raise their general neurological level to a more optimal rate (Senna Siegel, 1990). Criminals are potential psychopaths who devoted in risky activities. As Freud developed, libidinal energy is internalized in particular zone of human, these zones are oral, anal, phallic and genital. These zones will evoke a feeling of pleasure when they are stimulated (Vogelman, 1990). Therefore, it is possible for men to have biological drive for sex. Moreover, As Gebbard, Gagnon, Pomeroy and Christenseon (1965) stated, In many mammals, coitus is preceded by a physical strugglethe physiological by-products of excitement and exertion is the increased heart rate, increased breathing, muscle tension, the greater supply of blood to the body surfaces, etc (cited in Vogelman, 1990: 39). Men rape not purely because of lust and lack of sex, but to facilitate sexual arousal. The arousal is obtained from the struggle of woman to produce a sense of excitement (Vogelman, 1990). Treatment As mentioned previously, the response of crime in positivism concentrates on treatment rather than punishment. Offenders who seem to have personality problems will undergo a psychological evaluation examined by forensic psychologists and psychiatrists (Senna Siegel, 1990). These professionals worked within the criminal justice system to assess the possibility of personality disorder. They also assert appropriate treatment to criminals according to their degree of deficiency. Treatment for rapists seeks to identify the causes of their deviant behavior, and to cure them by changing their thinking processing. Treatments for rapists include psychotherapy, behavior modification and biomedical therapy (Hall, 1995). There are three forms of psychotherapy: relapse prevention, cognitive therapy, and victim empathy. Relapse prevention is based on the belief that an event such as emotion and behavior are prior to rape, rapists are asked to identify the preceding events so that whenever the event appear they can consciously terminate their offensive behavior (Hall, 1995). Relapse prevention is the exercise of self control utilization. Cognitive therapy indoctrinates a moral perception to rapists that it is necessary to rationalize and justify their own offensive behavior (Hall, 1995). Victim empathy enables the rapists to empathize with his victims, thereby gaining recognition of the lasting impact of his action. In this therapy, rapist reenacts the rape from the perspective of a victim (Hall, 1995). A new moral reasoning system is constructed from this torture experience. Behavior modification is done by arousal control (Hall, 1995). It makes use of adverse conditions to control unacceptable behavior. For example, a rapist is assigned to be exposed to a scene which depicts a violent sexual encounter. If he is sexually aroused, he might receive a series of electrical shocks or might be subjected to an offensive odor (Hall, 1995). The purpose of the treatment is to cause the rapist to respond adversely to the thoughts of sexual violence. Thus, behavior is reformed. Biomedical therapy involves the use of drugs in conjunction with other forms of therapy. Drugs are used as a form of chemical castration that results in suppression of the manufacture of the sex hormones, testosterone. It may also use to suppress inappropriate fantasies and compulsive behavior (Hall, 1995). Offensive behavior can be removed. Psychological positivism as legal defense mechanism In criminal justice system, a voluntary act, the actus reus and a mental element, the mens reas are required to condemn someone to be guilty (Murphy Clare, 2003). The mental elements include the cognitive development and psychiatric conditions of the offenders. The cognitive development contributes to the ability to identify existing problems and formulate an effective way to solve the problems (Murphy Clare, 2003). If the development is interrupted, the offender is claimed to be no intention for their acts. Likely is the psychiatric illness sufferer. The criminal law recognizes these abnormal mental conditions of a person not to entirely responsible for their actions as intent for the commission of crime is negated (Senna Siegel, 1990). The mental state of unconscious is used as a legal defense mechanism. If a person is declared insane when they were committing crime, a judgment of not guilty by reason of insanity (cited in Senna Siegel, 1990) is entered. The person is then held in an institution for the criminally insane until found to be sane and eligible for release (Senna Siegel, 1990). Offenders can escape from punishment liked incarceration. Besides, involuntarily intoxication under duress or by mistake may also be an excuse to refute the crime committed. Even though voluntary intoxication can lessen the degree of crime because the defendant can prove they were lacking of critical element for mental intention (Senna Siegel, 1990). For example, a judgment may be decreased from first to second-degree murder. The defense mechanism in respect to psychological positivism is being criticized as it spurs crime as it releases criminal offenders. Criminal justice system is thus unjust. Conclusion The willingness of time and money consumption to investigate psychological positivism indicates that policymakers ascertain that personal trait is a contributing cause of criminality. Nevertheless, there are critiques in psychological positivism. Since positivism is a science, it is inaccessible to the general community. Power is centered in the hands of forensic psychologists and psychiatrists with their specialized knowledge (White Haines, 2003). Debate was also found on the efficacy of criminal profiling. Psychological positivism brings suspicious people into innocent criminals simply because they match certain personality traits (White Haines, 2003). In contrast, psychological positivism allows crime to be prevented by early intervention such as pre-school program to enforce discipline to children. Psychological positivism tends to construct a more harmonic society for the future.